A Unified Accountability System For All Law Enforcement Essay

Title: A Unified Accountability System for All Law Enforcement Topic: Police Accountability Specific Purpose: The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of centralized procedures directed by the DOJ, which ensures every law enforcement agency and police officer have the same process for action accountability, and how the procedures will foster lawfulness and legitimacy within the community. I. Introduction A. Accountability in law enforcement is an element that is vital to effective policing across the United States. 1. It is one of the fundamental principle in our democratic society. 2. It is the bridge to foster a relationship between the community and local law enforcement 3. Officials need to hold agencies and officers accountable. 4. Legitimacy in law enforcement is the public’s belief about an agency and their willingness to recognize their police authority (National Institute of Justice, 1999). B. The problems associated with the societies’ perceptions about local law enforcement agencies and their actions. 1. Law enforcement legitimacy is a must for a community to have a good relationship and officers and agencies to have accountability. 2. There is accountability at the agency level and accountability of the individual police officer. 3. An agency is accountable for their performance in the controlling of crime and community disorder and meeting the requirements to provide different police services to the public. 4.Show MoreRelatedA Unified Accountability System Of Law Enforcement Essay1736 Words   |  7 PagesStatement of Purpose A Unified Accountability System in Law Enforcement Introduction Accountability in law enforcement is an element that is vital to effective policing across the United States. Furthermore, it is one of the fundamental principles in our democratic society. 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Trends in Modern International Terrorism Free Essays

Trends in Modern International Terrorism Boaz Ganor Abstract This chapter examines some of the most widely researched trends and developments within the phenomenon of modern international terrorism, providing policy recommendations on how to counter its emerging threats – particularly that of the Global Jihad movement and â€Å"homegrown† terrorism. The magnitude of the modern terrorist threat was demonstrated by the attacks of September 11, and ever since, the field has experienced a renewal of sorts, attracting unprecedented attention by both scholars and the mainstream public. This chapter will introduce readers to the main schools of thoughts within the academic field that explain terrorism. We will write a custom essay sample on Trends in Modern International Terrorism or any similar topic only for you Order Now It will also present the many disciplines applicable to the study of terrorism, demonstrating that the phenomenon is multifaceted in nature, requiring a cohesive international and broad-based response. In covering a number of dilemmas facing terrorism experts, the chapter explores the debate over a definition of terrorism, providing a proposed definition that distinguishes acts of terrorism from criminal acts. The chapter continues on to explore the phenomenon of modern terrorism, the role of traditional crime within the terror sphere, and the growing threat of Global Jihadi terrorism – including terror networks and homegrown cells and activists who have emerged as a result of the spread of radical Islamic ideology. The role of terrorism in democratic states and the economic ramifications of terrorism are also explored. Finally, the chapter ends with recommendations on how governments should effectively respond to terrorism and discuses room for further research. Trends in Modern International Terrorism In recent years, the academic world has witnessed a surge of research and academic programs in the field of homeland security and counterterrorism. After the attacks of 9/11, the threat of global terrorism immediately topped the international agenda. B. Ganor Lauder School of Government, International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT), Interdisciplinary Center (IDC), Herzliya, Israel e-mail: ganor@idc. ac. il D. Weisburd et al. (eds. ), To Protect and To Serve: Policing in an Age of Terrorism, DOI 10. 007/978-0-387-73685-3_2,  © Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009 11 12 B. Ganor Growing recognition of the threat, combined with an increase in government spending, spurred the development of academic research institutions, think tanks, and new higher education programs in the study of homeland security and counterterrorism. The trend was particularly prominent in the United States, as researchers sought a basic understanding of the characteristics of terrorism and agencies sought ways to effectively cope with the phenomenon. This trend was accompanied by a significant increase in the number of researchers focusing on the phenomenon of terrorism. These researchers came from a wide array of academic disciplines, applying varied quantitative and qualitative research tools and methods in their analysis of the threat. In understanding the phenomenon and preventing future terrorist attacks, researchers have focused primarily on understanding the rationale of terrorist organizations in general and Global Jihad organizations in particular – their cost-benefit calculations and their decision-making processes. Trends† in terrorism have also been explored – often focusing on the introduction, transition, or prominence of a specific modus operandi or a method, such as suicide bombings, the Global Jihad movement, or the use of unconventional weapons. Reviewing these trends and themes in terrorism – and the academic research that has accompanied them – is crucial in determining how fa r we have come and how far we have to go, both in terms of the governments designing and deciding on counterterrorism policy and the academics informing such decisions. In exploring the phenomenon of modern international terrorism, this chapter will first introduce readers to the various schools of thought and academic approaches used in explaining terrorism – drawing on a wide range of disciplines and theories. Discussion will then move to one of the most basic components of the terrorism dilemma, with implications on how the term – and thus phenomenon of terrorism itself – is treated, applied, and understood by the international community – the debate over defining terrorism. As will be demonstrated, definitions of terrorism vary widely – with equally as wide implications – yet there is still a general consensus among most leading scholars as to the essential nature of the threat. â€Å"Modern terrorism,† the next theme that will be explored in this chapter, is regarded as a form of psychological warfare intended to spread fear and anxiety among the target population. This fear is translated into political pressure on decision makers to change policies in such a manner that will serve the terrorist’s interests. As such, modern terrorists attempt to exploit the liberal values of democratic states, forcing governments to adhere to their demands as a result of the physical, psychological, and economic ramifications of terrorist attacks. The nature of terrorism in relation to the democratic state will be explored in a later section of this chapter as well. As terrorist groups are usually engaged in a long war of attrition, terrorist organizations need ongoing support and funds to ensure they can maintain their activities. In fact, one of the main sources of funding for many terrorist organizations is criminal activity: smuggling, counterfeiting, extortion, and narcotics. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the threat of international terrorism grew with the spread of Global Jihad terrorism. Made up of complex networks of hierarchal terrorist organizations, proxy and affiliate organizations, local and international terror 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 13 etworks, sleeper cells, and indoctrinated radical activists, all these actors share a common extreme ideology and the readiness to use violence in general – and terrorism in particular – in order to achieve their goals. The economic ramifications of these activities only further exacerbate the damage posed by terrorist attacks, another focus of terrorism research. This dynamic terrorist phenomenon has threatened an increasing number of states while involving more terror organizations, networks, activists, and suppor ters worldwide. The growing level of the threat, its international scope, its lethality,1 and the possible use of nonconventional terrorism (CBRN – chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons) necessitate future multidisciplinary research in the field and a more cohesive, international response. Explaining Terrorism In general, two schools of thought explaining the phenomenon of modern terrorism have emerged out of the collection of academic work within the discipline – the â€Å"psychological-sociological† school of thought and the â€Å"political-rational† school of thought. Both schools maintain that terrorism seeks to achieve political goals by instilling fear and anxiety among the target population, but each stresses a different aspect of the explanation. The psychological-sociological school, represented most recently by scholars such as Dr. Jerrold Post (1998) and John Horgan (2005), stresses the phenomenon’s psychological component, maintaining that the immediate and central goal of terrorism is to instill fear and anxiety, while its political goals are long term. Terror as a clinical term refers to a psychological state of constant dread or fearfulness, associated with an abnormally high level of psych-physiological arousal. This is central to what terrorists aim to achieve, since after all, while they have some ultimate set of political objectives, it is an immediate goal of most terrorist groups to cause terror† (Horgan, 2005:14). The psychological-sociological school addresses both the desired effect of terrorism and its root cause s, relying primarily on social group dynamics and the psychological profile of an individual terrorist actor. Some early psychological explanations of terrorism have focused on the disruptive or psychopathological personalities of terrorist operatives, analyzing terrorists based on characteristics or disorders associated with violent or aggressive behaviors (De la Corte et al. , 2007). Some of the common psychological characteristics that have been attributed to alleged terrorists Analysis of terrorist incidents over the last 35 years confirms that terrorist attacks, while arguably decreasing in quantity, are growing more deadly over time, as the number of fatalities per attack has increased (LaFree and Dugan, in this volume). Such data, however, rely on a definition of terrorism that LaFree and Dugan themselves note is relatively â€Å"inclusive. † The Global Terrorism Database (GTD), on which their analysis is based, excludes â€Å"attacks on the military by guerilla organizations,† but includes military targets attacked by substate actors motivated by political, economic, or social motives (See LaFree and Dugan; in this volume). 1 14 B. Ganor re paranoia, antisocial and narcissistic personalities (Millon, 1981; Post, 1987), lack of empathy with victims, hostility toward parents, dogmatic or ideological mentality, or a simplistic or utopian worldview (Victoroff, 2005). At one end of the spectrum within such literature is the assertion – and at times assumption – that terrorists are to some degree psychologically â€Å"abnormal,† possessing personality disorders that qualify them as insane or psychopathic (as discussed by Cooper, 1978; Hacker, 1976; Lasch, 1979; Pearce, 1977; Taylor, 1988). Despite early research providing psychological profiles of terrorists, other terrorism researchers have come to the general conclusion that there is no universal terrorist personality pattern; most terrorist operatives are not necessarily â€Å"psychopaths† (Silke, 1998), nor do they show traces of being clearly or consistently mentally ill (Crenshaw, 2000; Post, 1998; Stahelski, 2004). Early studies on the topic have been largely disproved or debunked, in fact, even within the psychological-social school of thought. Further research has shown that terrorists rarely meet the criteria for insanity,2 but rather may possess some â€Å"particular personality dispositions† related to psychological conditions or disorders (Post, 1987). Dr. Jerrold Post, an expert in political psychology, maintains that even though terrorists fit within the spectrum of â€Å"normality,† a large number have demonstrated specific personality characteristics that indicate a minor psychopathology, such as aggression, activism, thrill seeking, an externalist psychological mechanism and factionalism. These are characteristics of narcissistic disorders and borderline personalities (Post, 1998:25–27). While Post stops short of actually diagnosing terrorists with such disorders or characteristics, he does claim they tend to have high frequency among terrorists, contributing to a uniform rhetorical style and logic (Silke, 1998:65). According to Post, there is a unique logic that characterizes a terrorist’s thought process – a â€Å"terrorist psycho-logic. Post claims that terrorists are motivated by psychological influences when they choose to conduct violent acts, as expressed in rhetoric that relies on â€Å"us versus them† and â€Å"good versus evil† dichotomies. He further claims that lodged in a terrorist’s permanent logic is the notion that the regime must be toppled, which is a result of the terrorist’s search for identity. In an attack against the regime, a terrorist is actually trying to destroy the inner enemy within him. However, even as some researchers cite it as the primary cause, a terrorist’s individual psychological profile is not the only significant explanation for the phenomenon of terrorism. Rather, group psychology and sociology may be significant explanatory factors behind terrorist attacks. Various researchers have cited group pressure as a variable to explain recruitment, methods of operation and involvement in terrorism (Merari, 2004). Others have applied the cult model to terrorist organizations (Morgan, 2001). Studies by Heskin (1984), Rasch (1979), and Taylor (1988) have all cited evidence discrediting the assumption that terrorists are psychologically â€Å"abnormal. † 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 15 It is in this context that Post emphasizes the group as a framework in which a sense of belonging and importance for its members is created. He claims that ideology plays an important role in supporting a unifying environment for the group. Shared ideology justifies the group’s activity and quickly transforms into the group’s moral guide. The psychological-sociological school relies, therefore, on psychological and sociological characteristics, motives, and grievances in explaining the phenomenon of terrorism. In contrast, the â€Å"political-rational† school of thought views terrorism as a rational method of operation intended to promote various interests and attain concrete political goals (Crenshaw, 2000; Hoffman, 1998; Shprinzak, 1998). Rational choice theory has been adopted by a number of terrorism researchers within this school, and maintains that terrorist action derives from a conscious, rational, calculated decision to choose one route of action over another (Crenshaw, 1992; Sandler et al. , 1983; Sandler and Lapan, 1988; Wilson, 2000). 3 Leading researcher Martha Crenshaw explains that an organization chooses terrorism among several operational alternatives in order to promote their mutual values and preferences. In making a rational calculation of the costs and benefits, terrorism is deliberately chosen as the preferred method of political activity because it is perceived to be the most effective of the operating alternatives – the benefits exceed the costs. In this context, Ehud Shprinzak similarly stressed that the phenomenon of terrorism is not the result of disturbed human activity or a random thoughtless attack. This is a process that almost always begins without violence or terrorist activity (Shprinzak, 1998:78). Rand terrorism expert Bruce Hoffman further clarified the â€Å"rationalist† approach: â€Å"I have been studying terrorists and terrorism for more than twenty years. Yet I am still always struck by how disturbingly ‘normal’ most terrorists seem when one actually sits down and talks to them†¦ Many are in fact highly articulate and extremely thoughtful individuals for whom terrorism is (or was) an entirely rational choice†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hoffman, 1998:7) The dispute between the rationalist and psychological approach is important in understanding the root causes of terrorism, allowing experts and security professionals to identify characteristics of the threat and formulate effective counterstrategies. While the two schools may seem to fundamentally clash, an interdisciplinary explanation of terrorism may actually be the most effective way to approach the phenomenon. In a sense, these two schools can complement and complete each other. In the Israeli setting, for example, the case of a suicide bombing is likely motivated by a combination of the rational calculations of the organization, a cost-benefit analysis made by the attackers themselves, social pressure from the attackers’ peer group, and personal psychological, social, cultural, and religious motivations. The decisionmaking process functions on a number of levels, in which both political-rational 3 For an overview of psychological, social, and rational choice theories, see Victoroff, 2005. 16 B. Ganor Psychology H ci ol og ist or y So Law Why Terrorism ? Economics Media Communication Political Science Fig. 2. 1 Explanatory disciplines to terrorism and the psychological-sociological explanations have their place, demonstrating the multidisciplinary nature of terrorism. As Crenshaw noted, even though an act of terrorism may not be wholly the result of a psychological disorder, that is not to say â€Å"the political decision to join a terrorist organiz ation is not influenced or, in some cases, even determined by subconscious or latent psychological motives† (Crenshaw, 1998:386). It seems that only multivariable explanations based on methodologies and theories from different disciplines can adequately address the complex phenomenon of terrorism, provide explanations for the growth, development and characteristics of the phenomenon, and suggest methods for effectively dealing with terrorism (Fig. 2. 1). Explanatory Disciplines to Terrorism Different research disciplines may be able to provide answers to fundamental questions at the core of terrorism research, such as: Psychology The field of psychology can provide answers to such questions as: Do terrorists have common psychological characteristics? Do terrorists have a psychological profile? Why do people become terrorists? Which people might become terrorists and which will not? Why do people join a terrorist organization and why do they leave it? When, why, and how does the personal radicalization process take place? (See Post, 1998; Raine, 1993; Hubbard, 1971). 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 17 Economics How important are economic variables in explaining the development and motivation of terrorism? To what degree can terrorists’ financial situation explain the motives for their behavior? How much does the economic factor determine the scope and characteristics of terrorism activity? 4 (See Abadie, 2004; Kahn and Weiner, 2002; Krueger and Laitin, 2008; Krueger and Maleckova, 2002; Piazza, 2006). Sociology How much influence does one’s peer group have on the decision to join a terrorist group or the motivation to conduct acts of terrorism? How much can processes of socialization and delegitimization by society – ostracizing, discrimination, alienation, etc. serve as variables explaining the motives of terrorism? Why does a certain population at a specific time tend to carry out terrorist attacks while another population with similar characteristics does not choose this course of action? What is the extent of the connection between terrorism and different cultures? 5 (See Bandura, 1973, 1998; Gibbs, 1989; Merari, 2004; Morgan, 2001; Webb, 2002). Criminology To what extent should terrorism be treated as a phenomenon in the criminal sphere? What are the differences between the characteristics of criminal and terrorist activity? What are the similarities and the differences in the organizational characteristics between terrorist and criminal organizations? 6 (See Klein et al. , 2006; Klein and Maxson, 2006; Lafree, 2007). 4 Several studies have focused on refuting the widely claimed link between poverty and terrorism (Harmon, 2000; Hasisi and Pedahzur, 2000; Schmid, 1983). In fact, a 2003 study by Krueger and Maleckova showed that higher-earning Palestinians were more likely to justify the use of terrorism to achieve political goals; and a 2002 study (Krueger and Maleckova, 2002) did not find a link between Hezbollah fighters and impoverished conditions – ather, they were richer and more educated than their counterparts. Another study looked at the biographies of 285 suicide bombers and found them to be richer and more educated than members of the general population (Victoroff, 2005:21). 5 Until September 11, there were few academic studies of terrorism from a strictly sociological viewpoint. However, Bandura (1973, 1998) used social learning theory to suggest that violence follows observation and imitation of an aggressive model. Friedland (1992) cited the â€Å"frustrationaggression hypothesis† in understanding why terrorists turn to violence (as cited in Victoroff, 2005). Morgan (2001) applied the cult model to understand individual actors and group dynamics within terrorist groups. 6 For the role of policing in counter-terrorism strategies, see Chaps. 3–5 of this volume. LaFree and Dugan (Chap. 2) also briefly discuss the comparison between rates of terrorist attacks and other types of criminal violence. The interplay and linkages between organized crime and terrorism are explored in several anthology volumes, such as Holmes (2007), among many others. 18 B. Ganor Political Science and International Relations To what extent should terrorism be understood in rational terms (cost-benefit calculation) as an effective method intended to achieve political goals? To what extent can political terms such as sovereignty, power, authority, and social justice serve as variables to explain the phenomenon of terrorism? To what degree is the phenomenon of terrorism connected to certain ideologies or a certain form of government? To what degree does modern terrorism aim to take advantage of the liberal democratic form of government’s values and traits? To what extent is the media component essential in order to explain the strategy of modern terrorism? How are the decision-making processes different in terrorist organizations than other organizations? Can terrorism be understood as a means for states to achieve their interests in the international arena? To what extent can terrorism be dealt with by using deterrent measures in general and deterring state-sponsors of terrorism in particular? (See Crenshaw, 2000; Ganor, 2005; Hoffman, 1998; Nacos, 1994). Theology To what extent is modern terrorism a result of religious extremism? How is incitement to terrorism carried out with the use of religious rationalizations and how can this incitement be dealt with? (See Atran, 2006; Hoffman, 1995; Juergensmeyer, 2003; Ranstorp, 1996; Rapoport, 1984). Hence, nearly every academic research discipline has been, and will continue to be, critical in providing answers to some of the central issues that lie behind understanding the phenomenon of terrorism and the methods for dealing with it. Only this multidisciplinary approach can provide a profound understanding of the phenomenon. The Definition of Terrorism Growing interest in the field of terrorism and increased funding allotted to academic research and teaching budgets post-9/11 has spurred and supported the publication of hundreds of books and articles in the past few years, many professional and academic conferences, and a general flourishing of the field. Yet, six years after the world recognized the magnitude of the terrorist threat on 9/11, researchers, security professionals, politicians, jurists, and others have still not been able to agree upon its most fundamental component – what is terrorism? Moreover, and somewhat surprisingly, the only consensus these individuals have reached is that it might be impossible, or even unnecessary, to reach an internationally 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 19 accepted definition of terrorism. 7 Those who hold this opinion – in fact the majority in the field – usually cite the cliche â€Å"one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter,† in order to imply that, in their opinion, the issue of definition is subjective. As such, even partial agreement regarding its content cannot be reached. Louis Henkin (1989) captured this entiment in 1990 when he said that: â€Å"Terrorism†¦ is not a useful legal concept. † Those who do not regard a definition as critical believe that the international system – and the security establishment in particular – can manage without consensus on the issue. They claim that terrorists, in a sense, commit regular crimes – extortion, murder, arson, and other felonies already covered by conventional criminal law. Therefore, they can be tried for committing these felonies without the need for a special criminal classification, and thus definition, for terrorism. Needless to say, there is no shortage of proposed definitions for terrorism. Every researcher, expert, security professional, NGO, country, and politician espouses their own definition, one that likely represents a distinct world view and political stance. By the early 1980s, Schmid and Jongman had already listed 109 definitions of terrorism proposed by researchers in the field (Schmid and Jongman, 1998:5). In their chapter in this volume, LaFree and Dugan touch upon the difficulty in reaching a consensus on a definition of terrorism given its controversial and highly politicized nature. It is within this context that they note the U. S. was reluctant to define the attacks by Contra rebels in Nicaragua as terrorism, while regarding practically all violence in Iraq and Afghanistan as such. They further note that more inclusive definitions of terrorism are often preferred by businesses or private think tanks that are collecting data for the purpose of risk assessment, as such an approach ultimately benefits their clients (LaFree and Dugan, in this volume). Among the hundreds of definitions of terrorism that have been accepted throughout the years, some contain conceptual and phrasing problems (Hoffman, 2004:3). Many researchers note that the only certainty regarding terrorism is the pejorative manner in which the word is generally used and associated (Hoffman, 2006:23; Horgan, 2005:1). As such, when scholars, politicians, or activists describe and analyze the activities of alleged terrorist organizations, they very often use alternative terms that bear more positive connotations, such as guerilla or underground movements, revolutionaries, militias, militants, commando groups, national liberation movements, etc. (Hoffman, 2006:28). Many in the Western world have accepted the premise that terrorism and national liberation are located on two opposite ends of a spectrum legitimizing the use of violence. The struggle for â€Å"national liberation† is, allegedly, located on the positive 7 In a presentation on the definition of terrorism to the UK Parliament in March 2007, Lord Carlile quoted David Tucker from Skirmishes at the Edge of the Empire, stating that: â€Å"Above the gates of hell is the warning that all that enter should abandon hope. Less dire but to the same effect is the warning given to those who try to define terrorism† (See http://www. amilnation. org/terrorism/ uk/070317carlile. htm); for a reporter’s perspective see Kinsley, 2001; see also Levitt (1986), in which he claims a definition for terrorism is no easier to find than the Holy Grail. 20 B. Ganor and justified end of the violence spectrum, while terrorism is its unjust and negative polar opposite. Within this framework, i t would be impossible for a specific organization to be considered both a terrorist group and a national liberation movement, as Senator Henry Jackson claims: â€Å"The thought that one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter is unacceptable. Freedom fighters or revolutionaries do not blow up buses with noncombatants; terrorists and murderers do. Freedom fighters do not kidnap and slaughter students, terrorists and murders do†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (As cited in Netanyahu, 1987:18) There is little basis for the claim that â€Å"freedom fighters† cannot carry out acts of terrorism and murder. This approach unintentionally plays into the hands of terrorists, who claim that since they are acting to expel who they consider to be a foreign occupier, they cannot also be considered terrorists. However, many freedom fighters in modern history committed crimes and purposely targeted innocent civilians. The difference between â€Å"terrorism† and â€Å"freedom fighting† is not a subjective distinction based on the observer’s point of view. Rather, it derives from identifying the perpetrator’s goals and methods of operation. Terrorism is a means – a tool – for achieving an end, and that â€Å"end† can very well be liberating the homeland from the yoke of a foreign occupier. An organization can be, at the same time, both a national liberation movement and a terrorist group. It is not the specific goal – whether â€Å"freedom fighting† or another legitimate political objective – that distinguishes a group as a terrorist organization or justifies its activities. Many groups, however, such as the Muslim World League, do not clearly make this distinction. In a special publication from 2001, the Muslim World League states that: â€Å"Terrorism is an outrageous attack carried out either by individuals, groups or states against the human being (his religion, life, intellect, property and honor). It includes all forms of intimidation, harm, threatening, killing without a just cause†¦ so as to terrify and horrify people by hurting them or by exposing their lives, liberty, security or conditions to danger†¦ or exposing a national or natural resource to danger† (Al-Mukarramah, 2001). In presenting the activities that constitute terrorism as being committed â€Å"without a just cause,† the Muslim World League’s definition infers that such acts committed with a just cause are not considered terrorism. Such definitions are typical of attempts to create confusion between the means and the end, ultimately foiling any possibility of reaching a consensus on a definition. Since September 11, international terrorism has emerged on the top of national and international security agendas, widely perceived as a severe and very real threat to world peace. It is a threat that necessitates international alignment and cooperation on an unprecedented level. Such a high degree of cooperation cannot be established or sustained however without agreement over the most basic common denominator – the definition of terrorism. Outside intelligence and military circles, the effectiveness of other apparatuses essential in countering the terrorist threat is dependent upon a clear, broad, and objective definition of terrorism that can be accepted internationally. Such a definition is essential in order to: disrupt the financing of terrorism, respond to states and 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 21 communities that support terrorism, prevent recruitment and incitement of terrorist operatives, and establish legal measures and guidelines to both outlawed terrorist organizations and activities, and arrest and extradite alleged terrorists. Above all else, the international community must establish a binding normative system to determine what is allowed and not allowed – what is legitimate and not legitimate – when violence is used for political objectives. A definition that would address all these requirements is: Terrorism is the deliberate use of violence aimed against civilians in order to achieve political goals (nationalistic, socioeconomic, ideological, religious, etc. ) In defining terrorism within the above framework, it is important to note that a terrorist act would not be classified as a â€Å"regular† criminal activity warranting the application of criminal legal norms. Rather, terrorism would be viewed as an act of war, and the countermeasures mounted against it would too be conducted in accordance to the norms and laws of war. The Israeli High Court of Justice has itself struggled with the distinction between criminal acts and acts of war, reflecting the tension facing those studying and responding to terrorism today. According to Justice Cheshin, â€Å"a judge’s job is difficult. It is sevenfold as difficult when he comes to deal with a hideously murderous attack such as we have in front of us. The murderer’s action is inherently – though not within the framework of or as part of the formal definition – an act of war, and an act that is inherently an act of war is answered with an act of war, in the ways of war† (Abd Al-Rahim Hassan Nazzal and others vs. the Commander of the IDF forces in Judea and Samaria, 1994). In a different verdict, the judge ruled that a â€Å"criminal code created for daily life in human society does not have an answer for the question† (Federman and others vs. the Attorney General, 1993). The debate over whether terrorism should be considered a criminal act or an act of war remains strong among academics, NGOs, and counter terrorism professionals. Without consensus on the issue, states have applied their own policies in trying and convicting alleged terrorist suspects – whether as criminals or combatants. Despite the fact that criminal acts can consist of the same actions as terrorism – murder, arson, and extortion – terrorism, unlike an average criminal act, threatens the internal social order, personal and national security, world peace, and the economy. As previously noted, acts of terrorism are intended to achieve various political goals and could thus be considered arguably more severe than criminal violations. In addition, as international law expert and terrorism prosecutor Ruth Wedgwood has argued, criminal law may be â€Å"too weak a weapon† to counter terrorism, as destroying terrorist infrastructure and networks requires diplomac y, use of force, and criminal 8 Resolution 1566 (2004) adopted by the Security Council in its 5053rd meeting, on Oct. 8 2004: â€Å"†¦Reaffirming that terrorism in all its forms and manifestations constitutes one of the most serious threats to peace and security. Considering that acts of terrorism seriously impair the enjoyment of human rights and threaten the social and economic development of all states, they undermine global stability and prosperity. † (See: http://daccessdds. un. org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N04/542/82/ PDF/N0454282. pdf? OpenElement. ) 22 B. Ganor law combined. She adds that the restrictions embedded in a criminal justice system make sense in civil society where deterrence is a factor, but this may not apply in a fight against a highly networked terrorist organization (Wedgwood and Roth, 2004). Bruce Hoffman points to a fundamental difference between a criminal and a terrorist when he asserts that while a criminal seeks personal material goals, a terrorist usually sees himself as an altruist acting for and in the name of many others (Hoffman, 2006:37). Therefore, a terrorist may be perceived as posing greater danger through his actions, since he is significantly more willing than a criminal to sacrifice in order to achieve hi s goals – even to the point of self-sacrifice in certain situations. The criminal code in itself does not serve as an adequate platform to define terrorism. The laws of war are better suited as a framework for defining and dealing with terrorism, since the phenomenon is a violent action intended to achieve political goals, often involving the use of pseudo-military methods of operation. By basing the definition of terrorism on an established system of norms and laws, already included in international conventions and accepted by most of the countries in the world, the international community is more likely to reach a broad international agreement on the definition of terrorism – a basic tool in the joint international struggle against terrorism. At the core of the Geneva and The Hague conventions are rules differentiating between two types of personnel involved in military activity: â€Å"combatants,† military personnel who deliberately target enemy military personnel; and â€Å"war criminals,† military personnel who, among other actions forbidden by the laws of war, deliberately target civilians. Currently, the moral differentiation between a legitimate combatant and a war criminal is based on the attacked target (military or civilian), and, at least in principle, only applies to state entities and their armies and not to substate entities. In the Israeli setting for example, a Palestinian, considered part of a subnational group, who is involved in a deliberate attack against an Israeli military target, will receive the same treatment and punishment as a Palestinian who deliberately attacks a civilian target. Since there is no distinction made between the two, despite the difference in their targets, the degree of international legitimacy or condemnation of both cases will likely continue to be dependant on the supporter or condemner’s political stance and not necessarily on the character or target of the deliberate operation – its legality under applicable rules and norms. The American government, for example, classifies attacks against its troops in Iraq as terrorist attacks, as it does the October 2000 attack against the USS Cole or the attack against the American military barracks in Dhahran (June 1996). In fact, in an attempt to expand the definition of terrorism to include attacks against soldiers, the U. S. State Department’s definition states that terrorism is the Ruth Wedgewood and Human Rights Watch Director Kenneth Roth debate the US’s treatment of terrorist suspects – as combatants versus criminals – in a series of articles in Foreign Affairs (See Roth, 2004; Wedgwood and Roth, 2004). 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 23 deliberate use of violence against â€Å"non-combatant targets,† which includes both civilians and military personnel not on the battle field. 10 While it is natural for victims of terrorism to adopt this broad-based definition, terrorist organizations and their supporters can legi timately argue that in seeking to achieve their political goals, they cannot reasonably be required to either not confront military personnel entirely, or do so only when they are fully armed and prepared for war. They claim that they must be given the right to attack and surprise soldiers whatever the circumstances. In applying these considerations, the U. S. State Department’s definition of terrorism could not successfully serve as a common denominator leading to international agreement. It is only in reducing the scope of the definition to the deliberate targeting of civilians – as opposed to â€Å"non-combatants† – that may solve this problem, enabling the establishment of a clear moral boundary that should not be crossed. A terrorist act would be considered, in a sense, the equivalent for a substate entity to a war crime committed by a state. 1 During a state of war, normative principles and the laws of war forbid the deliberate targeting of civilians but allow deliberate attacks on an enemy’s military personnel (in accordance with other applicable regulations). Similarly, in modern asymmetric warfare, a normative rule must be set to address limitations on substate actors, differentiating between guerilla warfare (violence against military personnel) and terrorism (violence against civilians) – just as the rules of war differentiate between legitimate combatants and war criminals. For the purpose of defining terrorism, it is not significant what goal the organization aspires to achieve (as long as it is political); both the terrorist and the guerilla fighter may aspire to achieve the same goals. However, they each chose a different path – a different means – in order to realize these goals. Defining terrorism is critical in ensuring that the same normative standards currently enforced on states are applicable to nonstate actors, defining when their use of violence is permissible and when it is prohibited. Paradoxically, what is currently prohibited for states is not yet prohibited for organizations. Defining terrorism does not raise or lower the obligation of states to behave normatively and certainly does not place additional legal burdens upon them. It simply makes organizations accountable for their actions under the same value system currently obligating states. Terrorism is defined by the U. S. State Department as: â€Å"premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents. (from the 22 U. S. C. , 2656f(d)(2); See http://www. state. gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2005/65353. htm. ) 11 The UN short legal definition of terrorism, proposed by terrorism expert Alex P. Schmid, states that an act of terrorism is the â€Å"peacetime equivalent of a war crime. † While such a definition does not consider terrorism an act of war, in drawing a parallel with a war crime it notes the importance of the target (civilian vs. military) in legitimizing acts of violence. (See: http://www. unodc. org/ unodc/terrorism_definitions. html. ) 10 24 B. Ganor Reaching a broad international agreement regarding the definition of terrorism may require the international community to apply laws of war that forbid the deliberate targeting of civilians, but allow for the deliberate attack (in accordance with the other regulations) of an enemy’s military personnel. The definition proposed in this chapter may be capable of eliciting a broad base of support from many countries and organizations, both because it is based on already accepted international norms, and because it seemingly provides subnational organizations the possibility of legitimately using violence in order to achieve their goals. Such a definition would not allow for the artificial distinction that is often made between â€Å"bad† terrorism and â€Å"good† or â€Å"tolerable† terrorism. It instead adheres to the principle that â€Å"terrorism is terrorism is terrorism,† no matter who carries it out – a Muslim, Christian, Jew, or member of any other religion. Terrorism would be considered an illegitimate and forbidden method of operation in all cases, under all circumstances. The ideological or cultural background of the perpetrators; and the religious, political, social or economic motives of the act; would all be irrelevant in classifying an act of terrorism. Many view the effort to achieve a broad international agreement on terrorism as hopeless and naive. However, Security Council Resolution 1566, which was unanimously accepted by Council members in October 2004, may be a basis for hope that countries will overcome prior disputes, rise above their own interests, and reach an agreement in the near future regarding the international definition of terrorism. Resolution 1566, without serving as the definition itself, already establishes one basic principle on which an international definition can be built. It stipulates that terrorism is a crime against civilians, which in no circumstance can be justified by political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious, or other considerations. 12 Modern Terrorism Descriptions of typical terrorist operations and their common characteristics are often included in proposed definitions of modern terrorism – particularly in those that address the fear and anxiety created by terrorist acts. In such definitions, terrorism is presented as a form of violent activity (or threat of violence) that 2 Resolution 1566 (2004): â€Å"Condemns in the strongest terms all acts of terrorism irrespective of their motivation, whenever and by whomsoever committed, as one of the most serious threats to peace and security†¦Recalls that criminal acts, including against civilians committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury or taking hostages with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons intimidate a population or compel a government or an offences within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic religious or other similar nature and calls upon all states to prevent such acts†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . (See: http://daccessdds. un. org/doc/UNDOC/ GEN/N04/542/82/PDF/N0454282. pdf? OpenElement) 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 25 intends to frighten a group of people beyond the actual victims (Horgan, 2005:1). After reviewing the development of the definition of terrorism and examining a variety of definitions, Bruce Hoffman reaches the following conclusion in his important book, Inside Terrorism: â€Å"We may therefore now attempt to define terrorism as the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of violence in the pursuit of political change†¦ terrorism is specifically designed to have far-reaching psychological effects beyond the immediate victim(s) or object of the terrorist attack†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hoffman, 2006:40). Definitions that refer to terrorism as an act intended to instill fear and anxiety in the public are generally based on the literal meaning and historical use of the term â€Å"terrorism,† its application dating back to the French civil war. 13 Such definitions also rely on what is perceived to be the primary operational tactic of modern terrorism – psychological warfare – which seeks to achieve political goals b y instilling fear and anxiety among its target population. While definitions vary widely, there is a general consensus among most leading scholars as to the essential nature of the terrorist threat; researchers will rarely dispute the importance fear and anxiety play in understanding the phenomenon of modern terrorism. However, it is important to note that resulting fear and anxiety may not be an essential variable in defining a terrorist attack. In order to ensure that acts are objectively classified as terrorist attacks, an accepted definition must, in application, serve as a checklist of components. Based on the definition proposed in the previous section, if an act is not violent, does not deliberately target civilians, or does not attempt to achieve a political goal, then it is not a terrorist attack. Adding the element of fear and anxiety to the definition – essentially putting it on the checklist of required components – significantly changes the term’s application. If an attack, which would otherwise be considered an act of terrorism, does not aim to frighten, but rather only seeks to achieve concrete, tangible objectives – such as the release of prisoners or the assassination of a leading political figure – would the action not be considered terrorism? Similarly, a nuclear attack aimed at eradicating the majority of the population or contaminating an extensive area – which ultimately seeks to disable the state and prevent it from operating as an independent political entity – would be widely considered a terrorist attack, even though instilling fear and anxiety is not its primary purpose. Since such circumstances and scenarios can reasonably exist, the â€Å"fear and anxiety element† may not be necessary in defining terrorism; rather, it is valuable in explaining the modus operandi of a significant portion of modern terrorist attacks. 13 The term â€Å"terrorism† comes from the Latin terrere, â€Å"to cause to tremble. † The term became popularized during the â€Å"Reign of Terror† carried out by the revolutionary government in France from 1793 to 1794 (Juergensmeyer, 2003: 5). 26 B. Ganor Indeed, modern terrorism is not necessarily about the numbers. In fact, most modern terrorist attacks, while violent in nature, generally produce limited damage or casualties. 4 Instead, they rely on psychological warfare as a tool in achieving their goals, creating fear and anxiety among the general population. In many cases, a terrorist attack is random, aimed not at someone specific, but rather a group that shares a common trait and symbolizes the orga nization’s broader target (Americans, Israelis, â€Å"infidels,† Westerners, etc. ). By simultaneously transmitting several messages, these attacks intensify the sense of anxiety felt by the target group, which leads civilians to pressure decision makers and their government into changing policies and agreeing to terrorists’ demands. Some of the messages terrorist organizations aim to send through their attacks include: 1. Uncertainty – The randomness of the attack is supposed to instill a sense of uncertainty in the public regarding â€Å"safe behavior,† prompting fear that anyone could be the next victim (Horgan, 2005:3). 2. Vulnerability – A terrorist attack can take place anywhere, anytime, making all citizens feel vulnerable. 3. Helplessness – The state’s security apparatus cannot foil or prevent attacks, or protect civilians. 4. Personalization – You or someone close to you may not have been hurt in a recent attack, but it could very well be you the next time, since the victims have the same pro? le as you (Ganor, 2005:256). 5. Disproportional price – The price the individual must pay due to his government’s policy is very high. For that reason he must act to change national/international priorities in a way that will serve the terrorist’s objectives. 6. Vengeance – The citizen suffers due to the government’s actions against the terrorist organization and its supporters, and for this reason it is in his best interest to pressure the government to avoid this activity. Such attacks aim to create anxiety among the target group at a level disproportionate to the actual capabilities of the terrorist organization, forcing members of the target population to reprioritize and shift their concerns from that of national security to personal security. The target population perceives a growing threat from terrorism, which may be viewed by the public as largely fueled by the government’s supposedly dangerous policies. As political tension and criticism against the government in the target country mount, according to the strategy of modern terrorism, the public will pressure decision makers to change their policies in a manner that will suit the interests and goals of the terrorist organizations, or call for a change in administration that will establish policies more favorable to terrorist groups. In order to create this effect of fear, terrorist organizations often choose to escalate their activity in such a manner as to shock the public. According to Crenshaw, a review LaFree and Dugan note that over 53% of terrorist organizations from the Global Terrorism Database included in their study (1974–2004) have never produced a single fatality (LaFree and Dugan, in this volume). 14 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 27 of the history of terrorism reveals that terrorists have purposely chosen targets considered taboo or unpredictable in order to attract international media coverage (Crenshaw, 1998:14–15). The media component is central to modern terrorism’s strategy. Without media coverage, a terrorist organization has little opportunity to convey its message, let alone shock or scare its target population. The success of a modern terrorist campaign is arguably dependent on the amount of publicity it receives; the â€Å"journalist and television camera are the terrorist’s best friends† (Laqueur, 1987). Terrorism and Traditional Crime In seeking funding to support ongoing operations or infrastructure, terrorist organizations in Latin America, Europe, the Middle East, and the Far East have increasingly come to rely on â€Å"traditional† criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, counterfeiting, petty crime, human trafficking, and extortion (Vidino and Emerson, 2006; Mili, 2006). In fact, over the last three decades, law enforcement agencies have reported increased cooperation between terrorist organizations and criminal actors and activities – including attacks that have been financed through illegal crimes and suspects who have been prosecuted for crimes in which proceeds were directed to international terrorist organizations like Hezbollah and Al-Qaeda (Noble, 2003). Growing expenses associated with terrorist activity, such as payments to organization personnel, transportation, accommodation, training, and procurement of weapons, have served as incentive for terrorist organizations to get involved in common crime. These activities only further exacerbate the danger posed by terrorist organizations to the global economy and to the safety and wellbeing of the world’s population. By counterfeiting currency, for example, a terrorist organization can damage a country’s economy while it raises funds. Similarly, by producing and smuggling drugs to certain countries, an organization can cause considerable harm to the local population and simultaneously finance its activities. In the early 1970s, terrorist organizations, particularly those not supported financially by states, funded their activities through criminal activities such as bank robberies, kidnappings for ransom, and blackmail. Terrorist organizations, such as the Red Brigades in Italy, cooperated with criminal elements, enlisting them into the ranks of their organization. However, in the late 1970s and more so in the early 1980s, terrorist organizations realized that drug trafficking was far more lucrative than other routine criminal activities, leading to a phenomenon known as â€Å"narco-terrorism. †15 Terrorist organizations have been involved in producing and selling narcotics throughout the world – in Latin America (Colombia, Peru, Cuba, Bolivia); in Asia and 5 To illustrate the amount of money involved, a survey conducted by the United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention described the production, trafficking, and sales of illicit drugs to be an estimated $40 0-billion-a-year industry. A 2005 UN report estimated that global drug trade generated an estimated $322 billion in 2003, greater than the gross domestic product of 88% of the countries in the world (Pollard, 2005). 28 B. Ganor the Middle East (Sri Lanka, Lebanon, Afghanistan, India, the Philippines, Pakistan); and even in Western countries such as Italy, Spain, Ireland, and the United States. Drug trafficking by terrorist groups in Columbia is of particular concern to western governments. According to reports from the U. S. Bureau of Narcotics and Law Enforcement affairs, revenues earned from narcotics cultivation, taxation, and distribution have accounted for at least half the funding used to support terrorist activities by two of the country’s largest terrorist groups – the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the United Self-Defense Groups of Colombia (AUC). The State Department estimates that the FARC receives $300 million a year from drug sales to finance its terrorist activities. 16 The tri-border area (TBA), or â€Å"triple frontier† as it is known, centered along the borders of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil, has been widely recognized as another hotbed for terrorism financing and activity, particularly to groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas. Without strict border controls, the area serves as a haven for drugs and arms trafficking, counterfeiting, smuggling and other illegal activities. Tens of millions of dollars are estimated to have been transferred to groups through illegal remittances and other illegal activities, according to investigations by local police forces (Madani, 2002; Tri-border Transfers â€Å"funding terror,† 2006). Most terror organizations, however, are not directly involved in actually growing or producing drugs. They are tasked primarily with protecting the drugs and ensuring the safety of growers and producers. They also are active in smuggling narcotics to the marketing centers in countries where the drugs are distributed (Hudson, 2003:24). These organizations usually have a diverse network of contacts, enabling them to cross borders via indirect routes and smuggle weapons, ammunition, and various other products. Terrorist organizations can use the same routes and network used by their supporters in order to smuggle drugs. In some cases, drugs have been used to recruit foreign activists, in a sense bribing them to execute terrorist attacks. In these cases, the activists, who are not members of the organization, are enlisted in order to carry out attacks on behalf of the terror organizations, sometimes unbeknownst to the activists themselves, in return for a regular supply of drugs. 17 In other cases, terrorist organizations supply their members with drugs in order to increase their dependence on the organization and encourage obedience to its leaders. 8 Some terrorist organizations refer to the distribution of drugs as an alternative form of attack, since drug consumption can harm the national morale and weaken the ability of the population to cope with crises. 16 See Deborah McCarthy’s testimony before the Committee on the Judiciary United States Senate, May 20, 2003, â€Å"Narco-Ter rorism: International Drug Trafficking and Terrorism – A Dangerous Mix. † 17 For example, On August 28, 1971, a Dutch citizen, Henrietta Hundemeir, was arrested in Israel with a suitcase containing a timer-activated bomb with a barometric altimeter. The bomb was meant to explode in the El Al aircraft in which she herself was flying to Israel. Hundemeir was enlisted in Yugoslavia by a member of the â€Å"Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine,† who became her close friend by supplying her with drugs and using them with her. 18 One example is the â€Å"Weatherman† organization, which was responsible for terrorist attacks in the U. S. at the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. The group perceived drug use as a part of the revolutionary process. 2 Trends in Modern International Terrorism 29 Global Jihadi Terrorism Terrorism is a dynamic phenomenon that develops over time, gradually changing its shape and activities. It is carried out by various organizations in the service of different ideologies. Despite the fact that various local terrorist groups have operated in the international arena in the past decade, there is growing recognition by scholars and the intelligence community that the current international terrorist threat does not come from organizations motivated by nationalist grievances or separatist goals (such as the IRA, ETA, Fatah, LTTE, PKK, and others). Instead, the main threat is that of radical Islamic terrorism primarily aimed at promoting a radical religious world view. 19 Such groups are motivated by what they perceive as a divine command, making them potentially more dangerous than groups motivated by other causes. Hoffman stresses that while religion was an inseparable component of many terrorist organizations in the past, the dominant motivation for their actions was political rather than religious. This is not the case with Al-Qaeda and other radical Islamic organizations today. For them, religion is the most important component defining their activities, ideology, characteristics, and recruitment methods (Hoffman, 2006:82). According to James Thomson, â€Å"religions are very effective at guiding in-group morality and out-group hatred. They permit the take-over of groups by disenfranchised young males, they minimize the fear of death by spreading the belief in an afterlife reward for those who are dying in a holy war, etc. † (Thomson, 2003:82). Radical Islamic terrorism, part of the Global Jihad movement, includes acts perpetrated by many organizations, groups, and cells around the world. The movement is headed by Al-Qaeda, which, despite the many setbacks it has endured since September 11, 2001, is still capable of carrying out â€Å"direct attacks† through activists reporting directly to its authority or â€Å"indirect attacks† through proxy organizations – radical Islamic terrorist organizations and networks that share a similar fundamentalist Islamic ideology, aspirations, and interests. Some of these organizations, such as Egyptian, Bangladeshi, and Afghan Jihadi groups, were established by Osama bin Laden under the umbrella of his â€Å"International Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders† (February 1998). Some of these organizations have made pacts or commitments to bin Laden over the years, such as the Egyptian Al-Jama’a Al-Islamiya and the GSPC (currently referred to as Al-Qaeda of the Maghreb). However, the most significant trend of the past several years has been the phenomenon of â€Å"homegrown terrorism. Lo ne activists and local radical groups of Muslims, who either immigrated to Western countries There are also terrorist organizations that combine religious grievances with national-political motivations, such as Hamas. On the one hand, Hamas derives its ideology from the same narrative and background as Al-Qaeda, based on the early religious global ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood. At the same time though, Hamas seeks to achieve the nationalistic goal of destroying Israel and creating a Palestinian state in its place. 19 30 B. Ganor (first, second, or third generation) or converted to Islam in their country of origin, become inspired by the Global Jihad movement, leading them to carry out terrorist attacks. Al-Qaeda, its allies in the Global Jihad movement, other radical Islamic terrorist organizations, and the radical Islamic networks and cells of the West, all believe in one divine mission, which calls upon them to spread their radical beliefs throughout the world (Sageman, 2004:1). In seeking to achieve this mission, they believe it is permissible and necessary to make use of violence and terrorism, and that they are fighting a â€Å"defensive war† that allows them to use drastic measures. One perspective shared by several researchers is that this defensive war is not actually pitted against American or Western imperialism, as Global Jihad organizations commonly claim. Rather, the â€Å"fight against the West† is used to help mobilize and recruit activists, arguably acting as â€Å"lip service† by Al-Qaeda. It also serves to at least express their concern over every aspect of modernization, including democratic forms of government, liberal values, and even modern technology that threaten the way of life they strive for – a radical Islamic caliphate governed by Sharia law. It is also important to note that the threat of Global Jihad is not, as many tend to think, a war between Islam and other religions. Rather, it can be understood as a war of cultures – the culture of radical Islam against the outside world; or the culture of radical Islam against the culture of the â€Å"infidels,† as Islamists call all those who do not share their world view. Many in the radical Jihadi movement recognize that they will not be able to succeed in their worldwide campaign in the near future. Therefore they aim, as a first stage, to create localized radical Islamic revolutions, primarily in Arab and Islamic countries. In fact, the majority of Global Jihad attacks over the past several years occurred in countries of the Arab or Islamic world, How to cite Trends in Modern International Terrorism, Essay examples

Define Methodology of Project Management †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Define Methodology of Project Management. Answer: Define Methodology Definition: Methodology has been defined as a set of rules and principles with defined process and procedures that are utilized for solving or interpreting carious problems, issues while ensuring the discipline scope (Terlizzi, Souza Meirelles and Moraes 2016). Further, Joslin and Muller (2015) argued that methodology is a theoretical and systematic approach used for conducing any project or endeavor. Role in Project Management: Every project is associated with a certain number of goals and aims that needs to be completed within a scheduled time and provided resources. Terlizzi, Souza Meirelles and Moraes (2016) claimed regardless the type of project, the application of methodologies allows the project manager in efficiently conduct the project in an efficient manner. Larson and Gray (2013) defined methodology as a model that is used for employing the plan, design and implementation of developed objective for a project. Patwardhan et al. (2016) illustrated that project methodologies accommodate processes and techniques that guides the project stakeholders in completing an undertaken project. Project methodologies are characterized as standard processes that have been particularly designed for completing the task within a project. Inproject management the application of appropriate methodology allows the project team for tackling projects in an integrated, systematic and comprehens ive manner. Furthermore, in the concept of project management, methodology allows in completing the project in a cost-efficient and schedule-compressed manner. Various Methodologies VariousProject Management Methodologies According to Al-Azawi, Ayesh and Obaidy (2014), various types, requirements and complexity of project determines the particular project methodology that needs to be followed for completing the project. Various methodologies that are followed in project management are illustrated in the section below: PMBOK: According to Tipaldi et al. (2013), the methodology incorporating the PMBOK process in project management breaks the entire project in five processes namely project initiation, project planning, project execution, project controlling and project closing. The PMBOK follows various conventions and standards for managing a particular project. PRINCE2: The project methodology for PRINCE2 is utilized and employed for projects in Controlled environments. The planning approaches based on development of products are characterized in PRINCE2. Madgunda et al. (2015) cited that resource allocation and business justification are included while developing a project using PRINCE2 methods. SDLC: Joslin and Muller (2015) showed that SDLC methods are particularly utilized for the software development projects. The methodology of SDCL provides development of high-quality and standard software while ensuring the customer expectation, cost and time provided for completion of the project. Waterfall: Waterfall Methodology is a traditional approach that is used for software development projects. In waterfall methods, all the requirements and resources are identified and defined in the initial phase of the project. Waterfall Methods allows in developing the project in fixed timeline and fixed development phase. Agile: According to Terlizzi, Souza Meirelles and Moraes (2016), Agile Methods aims at adapting the constant and situation change within the project while including regular feedback from the customers. Agile methods allows in development of the project within multiple iteration while ensuring continuous improvement and development of prototype model. Differences between Waterfall and Agile The difference between the waterfall and agile methodology in project management is discussed in the section below: Waterfall Methodology Agile Methodology In the waterfall model, the project is divided into various modules or phases. Agile methodology supports the segregation of the project into various sprints. Waterfall model provides detailed structure to the project for completion. Agile methods provide flexibility to the development process of a project. The project is completed as on single project at one time; no prototype is developed. Agile includes iteration of the project development with implementation off prototype model in each iteration Patwardhan et al. (2016). Waterfall model does not include the customer incorporation during the internal development process Joslin and Muller (2015). Agile Methods includes the customer feedback after the completion of one sprint for developing effective product and ensuring customer satisfaction. Waterfall model fails to incorporate new scope within midway of the project. Agile promotes and can incorporate new scope and modification within the project. Similarities between Waterfall and Agile Madgunda et al. (2015) cited that agile and waterfall model are extensively used in the project related to software development. Both the methodologies include planning, requirement analysis, software design, and implementation, testing and monitoring phases. Larson and Gray (2013) claimed that the development of the agile methodology was done for opposing and overcoming the issues in the waterfall module. Therefore, there does not exist many similarities between the two methodologies. Although, Tipaldi et al. (2013) have identified that both the methods aims at providing efficient completion and providing quality project. Methodology Related to Project Management Patwardhan et al. (2016) illustrated that the each project aims at providing he completing within the allocated time and budget. The application of an appropriate methodology while completing the project allows ensuring proper standard and process during development. According to Larson and Gray (2013) the particular path that is being followed for completing a project can be defined as project life cycle. The project life cycle generally includes three major phases namely project initiation, project planning, project implementation and project closure. The selected methodology agile and waterfall model ensures proper application and following detailed process through the project life cycle. Terlizzi, Souza Meirelles and Moraes (2016) showed that in waterfall model, all the phases are included from initiation to closure and are used for completing the project. In Agile Methods all the phase of PLC are iterated in each sprint for project completion. Therefore, project methodologies fo llow PLC for completion of any project. References Al-Azawi, R., Ayesh, A. and Obaidy, M.A., 2014, January. Towards agent-based agile approach for game development methodology. InComputer Applications and Information Systems (WCCAIS), 2014 World Congress on(pp. 1-6). IEEE. Joslin, R. and Mller, R., 2015. Relationships between a project management methodology and project success in different project governance contexts.International Journal of Project Management,33(6), pp.1377-1392. Larson, E.W. and Gray, C., 2013.Project Management: The Managerial Process with MS Project. McGraw-Hill. Madgunda, S., Suman, U., Praneeth, G.S. and Kasera, R., 2015. Steps in Requirement Stage of Waterfall Model.International journal of computer mathematical sciences, pp.86-87. Patwardhan, A., Kidd, J., Urena, T. and Rajgopalan, A., 2016. Embracing Agile methodology during DevOps Developer Internship Program.arXiv preprint arXiv:1607.01893. Terlizzi, M.A., de Souza Meirelles, F. and de Moraes, H.R.O.C., 2016. Barriers to the use of an IT Project Management Methodology in a large financial institution.International Journal of Project Management,34(3), pp.467-479. Tipaldi, M., Gtz, C., Ferraguto, M., Troiano, L. and Bruenjes, B., 2013. The Robust Software Feedback Model: an effective Waterfall Model tailoring for Space SW.Proceedings of DASIA-Data Systems in Aerospace.

What Is an Educated Filipino free essay sample

â€Å"Education isn’t how much you have committed to memory, or even how much you know. It’s being able to differentiate between what you know and what you don’t†. –Anatole France- Life itself offered an education as you know it, without the right needs, bow can you call it life when you do not enjoy it? This is one in my opinion I think that is more important than a informal education. Many times I’ve heard â€Å"it is not what you know, but who you know†. We Filipinos are given the right to be educated, but what are the attitudes that we must possess to be called an educated Filipino? I think this is the time for us to have the ingredients of education. We must have the ability, the knowledge and the mindset that will help us nurture ourselves and others. Education makes a man who he is and what he does. We will write a custom essay sample on What Is an Educated Filipino or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It chooses his faith and when he is on the right path, he leaves him in his own, make his own decisions with his new life with education. It shows the surrounding people who you are, what you like and what you don’t. Education has to be used the right way to be drive out the most of life. Only education can help you in the future, so why abuse it, and take it if you can! As I read the essay of Francisco Benitez entitled â€Å"what is an educated Filipino†, I end up realizing that it’s not only the knowledge being taught in school can let others to call us an educated one but it is also on how we deal to our fellowmen, to our country, and of course to our selves. Through trials and tribulations in life and we learn to be a more understanding person. Education and life are far from over, but that life and education is a journey. We cannot go through life and learn nothing for to even make it that we know nothing, we have also realized that there is so much else in life and that could be education.

Trustworthy testimonials how to write

Trustworthy testimonials how to write A Comprehensive Guide on Writing a Testimonial A testimonial is a personal statement, which concentrates on the main qualities of a person, product, or service. It is a way of sharing the opinion about any issue, including businesses and enterprises. In most of the cases, it concentrates on positive features of a product or service. If you are willing to leave positive feedback, make sure it contains three elements: Description of the problem; Showing benefits of the Conclusion Steps of Writing a Trustworthy Testimonial Tell About Yourself Always start feedback with key details about yourself. This will make the testimonial personalized, and your opinion will have more weight. However, you need to adjust the quantity and quality of personal information to every type of product or service. Describe the Problem Proceed with discussing the situation you have faced before you found out about a person/product or service. This will be the basis of the testimonial and will explain how valuable your review will be. Try to include lots of facts to support your point of view but always remain clear and straight to the point. Such facts will help readers to compare how your situation has changed before and after using the service or product. An evidence-based testimonial is what all customers need!   For example, if your company had difficulties with sales, you can leave the following comment â€Å"My enterprise was selling only 20 products per day before using the services of a sales expert. Now they have reached 500 products per day.’ Tell About Additional Options Tell about the products or services you have used to solve the issue. The main idea here is to explain how others failed to solve your problem. The best way to present a company in the best light is to compare it with competitors, who were not able to help you. Based on the example above, you can say, â€Å"We hired XXX, a leading advertiser in the city, to promote our products. However, the number of sales didn’t increase.’ Indicate Possible Obstacles You can discuss any problems you have faced with the previous service or company, and tell how you overcame the situation. A good example can be the cost of the service. Based on the previous example you can say, â€Å"We decided not to use XXX advertiser, which is more expensive than the YYY one. However, they didn’t show any results, and we decided to give XXX a chance’. How the Problem Was Solved? Start a new paragraph by providing key facts about the product or service. Tell what it does and explain in details how it helped to solve your issue. For example, based on the information in previous samples, you can say â€Å"The XXX company used online promotion as the key tool to sell our product. It also used web markets to advertise us and also has employees, who move from supermarket to supermarket and offer products. Since hiring them, we have increased our sales to 400%, which is a significant result.’ You should also mention any specific and unique services or offers the company has. In such a way, you will give them more value. It is a great factor when users decide whether to choose a particular company or not. You can say ‘We were pleasantly surprised to get an extra month of their services for free.’ Don’t Forget About a Personal Note In case the result has exceeded your expectations, you can mention it by praising the company or a particular person. You can even give names and tell that it was a pleasure working with them. It is very important because the employees you mention can be rewarded by the company. You can also distinguish a particular employee even if the whole team worked perfectly well. For example, ‘Members of the team managed to promote and sell our product within tightest deadlines, but John did, even more, devoting lots of time to communicating with potential customers. We are sure that without his efforts, the results would be not so great.’ Quantify the Results If you want to impress readers and to give them a clear picture of what to expect from a product or service, it is important to give numbers. Moreover, they should match those, which you used to explain your issue. For example, if you are writing a testimonial for an advertiser and your main problem is a low quantity of sales, you should indicate an exact number you had before and after cooperating with a particular company. Tell How You Surpassed the Obstacles Discuss how you feel about the problems that you have faced and indicate whether they were as big as you have imagined before working with the chosen company or product. For example, if you couldn’t decide whether to work with XXX because of their high fees, it is necessary to highlight whether the result was eventually worth it. This section is the last one in the body part of your testimonial, and now you only need to come up with the conclusion. Summarize Your Experience In a few sentences, explain how the product or service helped to solve your problem. This should be the third paragraph of your review. You should also write a few words about why you decided to leave a testimonial. For example, ‘When John from XXX advertiser asked whether I could write a testimonial about their service, I didn’t hesitate, because they did a great job and it was the least I could do for them.’ Would you Recommend the Service to Others? A good testimonial always contains encouragement, which motivates other users to try out the service and to benefit from them. For a better result, you can refer to a certain group of people based on the niche you are occupying. For example, ‘I recommend XXX services to owners of enterprises that are only starting their path and know nothing about their market.’ Include a Call for Action Although you have already recommended the product or service to the reader, you can still make additional encouragement to motivate others and to pay extra attention to the company. For example, ‘If you are launching a new product, just call XXX advertiser! They provide outstanding services, and the first consultation is free of any charges.’ Why Testimonials Are so Important Here are only some of the reasons why testimonials are important: Higher conversion rates By reaching the target audience, they can stimulate interest and increase the activity of potential users and customers. A tool to study the behavior of customers Reading testimonials is a great way to know what other people think about a particular product or service. It is a well-known fact that people are more willing to risk their money to purchase a new item if they previously get familiar with positive feedbacks. Proof of success When a person reads testimonials and sees that others have reached success due to a particular product or company, they also want to try it out. They make your product more value If you are an owner of such a service or company, testimonials are a great way to persuade potential customers. Instead of filling your website with watery texts, you can add a separate testimonial page. Features of a Good Testimonial It should be brief and straight to the point. In most of the cases people won’t read a long and watery text, simply skipping it; It should be direct. You should make clear statements so that the readers can understand them at once; It should be original and written from scratch. No copies or generic messages. Where to Place Testimonials To reach a maximum number of readers, place feedbacks on many different websites. Place them on the page of products or services. In such a way readers will see relevant comments at once; Place them on popular websites. This is one of the most effective tools, because such pages have more visitors, so more people will see the testimonial; To increase the conversion rate, place the testimonial on optimized pages; Place them on a landing page; Place them on a home page; Create a separate page with testimonials; Place on sidebars within quotation marks; Place on page with stories from customers. Testimonials for Your Business A customer testimonial is a feedback that is written by a customer, who is satisfied with the quality of a product or service. Such testimonial motivates others to try the product or company out. It helps to build a reputation. Testimonials give information about why others like your services or products. This is a great way to attract more customers and to build a solid reputation because more and more people will share what they like about your product; It creates trust between your company and customers. This can have a positive impact on the company because when customers tell about their positive experience with your services, they give others a chance to know more about your enterprise; A chance to overcome skepticism. Reviews attract more and more customers, familiarizing them with your services and products, and the way others benefited from cooperating with them; Testimonials are objective. Unlike your own descriptions, testimonials tell about the experience of other users and deliver a clear picture of the pros and cons your product or service has; It gives a chance to learn what others think about the services and products you provide. In such a way, you can improve the qualities of your services and create a tighter bond with your customers. You can ask them for testimonials, creating a separate draft letter. With its help, you can also encourage them to share your feedback with other users and to explain how their testimonial will be used. In case a particular customer has left a comment via a personal letter, you need to ask for permission to make it public. Remember, private feedbacks should never be posted without the previous permission of a client; Testimonials can promote your product or services in case the message is positive (i.e. ‘this company is the best’ or ‘their product is excellent’). It is a great tool to explain all of the benefits of your company or product. For example, ‘XXX company helped to significantly increase the number of sales: from 500 to 1700 in a single month.’ This will greatly improve interest in your company because readers would also want to get the same improvements for their own enterprises and businesses; Testimonials help to prove your points. Quality testimonials will surely explain how your product or company can provide the best services to ensure the prosperity of your enterprise. In addition, they will explain why the service or product is beneficial for a particular group of customers. It will also show that you keep your words and meet all of the expectations. It is one of the most effective ways of attracting more and more customers to your company; Positive testimonials will help your product to stand out. If a big number of reviewers will tell about the benefits of your company, more and more people will be encouraged to choose you instead of your competitors. Through testimonials, users will get more information about your product and will be aware of all the positive effects it has. Hopefully, this guide has given you all the information you need to know on writing testimonials and making them one of the most powerful instruments in achieving success!

Case Study On Euro Land Foods Finance Essay

Case Study On Euro Land Foods Finance Essay The company was founded in 1924 by Theo verdin a previous as a subsidiary of his dairy business. His keen attention to product Development and grew business steadily over the year .the company went public in year 1979 and by 1993, was listed on trading in the London and Germany exchanges. In January 2001, the senior management of Euro land foods was to draw the firm’s one year capital budget and up for new 11 major projects are imposed to spending limit on capital of 120 million pound. Investment at that rate would be representing a major increase in the firm’s current assets base on 965 million pound. The senior manager challenge of Euro land foods to allocate funds among a range of compelling project, new product introduce and preventive maintenance, safety and pollution control. As a matter of policy, investment proposals at Euro land foods were subject to two financial test, payback and internal rate of return. NET PRESENT VALUE (NPV) The net present value (NPV) re quires cash flow discounting by making use of the so-called risk-adjusted cost of capital, which serves the purpose of accounting for risk. A widespread model employed for computing the cost of capital is the capital asset pricing model (CAPM). Rubinstein (1973) and other scholars in the late 1960s and 1970s have provided the link between CAPM and capital budgeting decisions: in their classical contributions they show that, if the CAPM assumptions are met, then the cost of capital is a function of the systematic risk, which is given by the beta of the project. The latter depends in turn on the cost of the project, which implies that it is a disequilibrium beta. The corresponding NPV is therefore disequilibrium NPV. If†¦ It means†¦ Then†¦ NPV > 0 the asset would add value to the definite the venture may be acknowledged NPV < 0 the asset would take from value as of the firm the plan should be unwanted NPV = 0 the asset would neither gain nor misplace value for the firm We should be uncaring in the conclusion whether to accept or refuse the project. This plan adds no monetary value. Decision should be base on other criteria, e.g. designed position or other factors not evidently included in the calculation. Formula: Npv =CFo+ ___CF____ ( 1+k) n Example:- Year Cash flow Present Value 0 100,000 1 22,727 2 20,661 3 18,783 4 17,075 5 15,523 Internal rate of return:- It is a different economical cash flow practice which takes report of the extent and time of cash flow. Formula: – IRR=LOWER RATE+ npv at lower rate x (HIGHER RATE -LOWER Rate) Npv at lower rate -NPV at higher rate Example 1. If a speculation may be given by the chain of cash flows: Year (n) Cash Flow (Cn) 0 -4000 1 1200 2 1410 3 1875 4 1050 Then the IRR  r  is given by . In this case, the answer is 14.3%. 1. Project with NPV and IRR:- The research on the resource-constrained project scheduling problem is focused mainly on two types of objectives: objectives based on time and obje ctives based on cost. Both of these factors, i.e. time and cost, are indispensable in practical applications. Year

IT Systems Strategy Of A Company Research Paper

IT Systems Strategy Of A Company - Research Paper Example In the context of current market trends, the increase of a firm’s profitability cannot be achieved without a radical change in the methods used for managing information across the particular organization. The development of information as an element of competitive advantage is, primarily, the result of the continuous improvement of technology involved in various organizational activities. Under these terms, the firms, which are interested in achieving a long-term growth, need to ensure that they are able to capture, process and transmit information across all their departments. The above issue is set under examination in this paper. Reference is made to a particular firm, Microsoft UK. The information management practices of the above firm are evaluated emphasizing on the following issues: a) the effects of a potential information audit, b) the relationship between the organizational structure/ culture and the information management policies used by the organization and c) the value of competitive intelligence for the development of organizational performance. It is concluded that the development of the firm’s existing information management policies would help the firm to increase its competitiveness within the global market; moreover, the incorporation of effective competitive intelligence methods would also support the achievement of the above target. However, the firm’s existing structure and culture would need to be reviewed and updated supporting more effectively the relevant efforts of the organization. 2. Key issues that would be likely to emerge if an information audit were to be conducted for Microsoft UK In order to identify the effects of a potential information audit in Microsoft it would be necessary to refer primarily to the common needs and benefits of the particular process as developed in firms internationally. In accordance with Dube et al. (2005) information audit results to a series of benefits for the organization invo lved: the most important benefit of information audit is the improvement of a firm’s existing control systems (Dube et al 2005, p.12); moreover, information audit helps to identify the problems of a firm’s information management policies and to suggest information management processes which are more appropriate for the particular organization (Dube et al. 2005, p.12). However, despite its value for the organizational performance, information audit is a rather costly process (Lipman et al 2006, p.66). In this context, the ability of a firm to cover the relevant expenses cannot be guaranteed. In the case of Microsoft, no such problem is expected; the firm’s financial status allows for such initiatives; however, another issue would occur: is the information audit process attempted in Microsoft well planned? If the relevant plan is not carefully developed, the risk of a failure would be extremely high. From a different point of view, the success of information audit has been related to the IS skills of the employees engaged in the specific process; this is an issue highlighted in the study of Coderre (2009). For Microsoft, the above issue is not important; the firm’s employees are

Comparison critique of 2 famous speeches Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Comparison critique of 2 famous speeches - Essay Example In Kennedy’s address, he used both ethos and pathos to convince the audience that under his leadership significant ties that allegedly bind the country to other foreign governments would continue through his offer and pledges of loyalty, hope, good deed, and a call for peace. They both exuded the air of confidence during the whole duration of the speech and assuming ample preparedness prior to the delivery. Though both were glancing at some previously prepared notes on the speech, it was clearly evident that they knew most of the contents of the speech and frequent glancing was enough to ensure that the delivery flowed perfectly and effectively. Their appearances were both sublime and very professional; donning formal suits with respective neckties and hair perfectly groomed. Likewise, both employed sustaining a particular tone that uses emphasis and clarity in pronunciation, diction and use of flawless grammar. Both speakers, during their course of delivery, were intermittent ly applauded by the audience, to signify conformity and approval to their points of assertions. Both Reagan and Kennedy knew the effective use of body language that employs glancing at the audience, looking at them through their eyes, briefly glancing on their notes, changing their facial focus to the right, the middle and the left portion of the audience, and using the appropriate tone and marks of emphasis, as needed. Likewise, in terms of audience orientation, it was evident in both speeches that the audience impact and appeal were both positive. Intermittent claps were heard, especially when the speakers noted some relevant arguments that were appropriately supported; or when figurative languages were used. The fact that these speakers were the ones who delivered the speeches resulted in an enhanced credibility and audience appeal. If the speech were delivered by somebody else, it could have significantly affected audience impact, depending on the person’s character, the manner of delivery, air of confidence, and manifested authority, among others. Concurrently, there were disparities between the delivery, style, and focus or thrusts of these two speeches. In Reagan’s speech, he did not begin the speech by acknowledging the presence of personalities who were present; unlike Kennedy’s speech which begun with acknowledging the following: â€Å"Vice President Johnson, Mr. Speaker, Mr. Chief Justice, President Eisenhower, Vice President Nixon, President Truman, reverend clergy, fellow citizens† (John F. Kennedy Inaugural Address par. 1). Reagan’s introduction was simply to acknowledge gratitude from the audience by repeatedly saying â€Å"Thank you. Thank you very much. Thank you and good evening† (A TIME FOR CHOOSING (The Speech – October 27, 1964) par. 1). Likewise, the speed of Reagan’s speech was faster, as compared to the slower paced and significantly rehearsed pacing by Kennedy. The total number of words